Ups On The United Parcel Service - 869 Words

The United Parcel Service delivers millions of packages every single day throughout the entire world. UPS delivers packages to over 200 countries. It is by far one of the biggest delivery companies in the world. Two teenagers started the company in 1907. By 1975, UPS was serving 48 countries in the United States. By the 1990s, UPS shifted towards a global footprint that has worked tremendously. UPS has emerged in many different economies; however, UPS has not had as much market scale, as they have wanted in India. In 2005 and 2008, they formed alliances with Jet Air and AFL Private Ltd for better access in India. However, UPS has used more resources in other markets, like China and Malaysia. Therefore, competitors of UPS will begin to enter India if UPS does not do something soon. Unfortunately, DHL, one of their competitors, bought an Indian delivery company and it has been successful. As a result, UPS wants to enter the Indian market with full force, but many questions will arise t o join a market with over a billion people. An external analysis that can be done on UPS is the PESTEL analysis. From a political standpoint, UPS has to deal with labor unions. In 1997, they actually had a labor strike due to pensions and pay. As a result, the company lost over 650 million dollars due to the strike. In order to have a successful business, the workers have to be satisfied. Also, there are political implications in doing business in India for the delivery companies because itShow MoreRelatedThe United Parcel Service ( Ups )1970 Words   |  8 Pages The United Parcel Service (UPS) is a company specializing in the collection and the routing of packages throughout the entire world. It represents an excellent example of a corporation actively involved in freight distribution highly dependable on logistics. With the use of information systems, UPS’s information system is specifically adapted to the needs of parcel collection. As each parcel is moved through the UPS logistics system there are large amounts of data elements transmitted over cableRead MoreUnited Parcel Service and Ups1859 Words   |  8 PagesUnited Parcel Service Executive Summary UPS has announced that after more than 90 years as a private company, it was planning an initial public offering to become a publicly traded company. In response to this, we will first analyze UPS ¡Ã‚ ¦s business strategy and it ¡Ã‚ ¦s sustainability of its current performance. Then we will look at key factors to estimate the UPS ¡Ã‚ ¦s market capitalization value using FedEx ¡Ã‚ ¦s multiples as well as  ¡Ã‚ §best in breed ¡Ã‚ ¨ company premiums. From this, we concluded thatRead MoreUnited Parcel Service ( Ups )1008 Words   |  5 PagesUnited Parcel Service (UPS) is a U.S. based company that specializes in international package delivery. The company was developed from a small messenger service which was created in Seattle in 1907 (Brewster Dalzell, 2007). A 19-year-old man called James E. Casey, together with his friend Claude Ryan, established the messenger service with only two bicycles, a phone within a small office in a basement, and $100 which were borrowed fr om Ryan s uncle. From this messenger service, the two young menRead MoreUnited Parcel Service ( Ups )1883 Words   |  8 PagesState of the organization United Parcel Service (UPS), is the world’s largest express package delivery firm that handled more than 4.7 billion packages and documents in 2015. This global transportation and logistics service provider operates in more than 220 countries, and offers an array of supply chain management solutions (UPS Fact Sheet, n.d.). The firm has diversified its products and/or services to include freight forwarding and logistics services via air, ground, rail, and sea. U.S. DomesticRead MoreHow Ups Is The United Parcel Service, Or Ups? Essay1300 Words   |  6 PagesIf you have had a package delivered in the mail recently, there is a significant chance that UPS shipped it. The United Parcel Service, or UPS, is one of America’s largest shipping companies. According to UPS’s fact sheet, in 2015, they shipped 4.7 billion packages and documents (2016). This is more than 18 million packages a day. In order to operate successfully and maintain a profit, UPS uses advanced te chnology and Information Systems to manage its business. UPS’s use of Radio Frequency IdentificationRead MoreThe United Parcel Service ( Ups )2418 Words   |  10 PagesThe United Parcel Service (UPS) adopted a business strategy of mostly hiring part-time workers – attractive to young workers who were given work at off-time shifts earning union-negotiated wages and benefits. However, part-time work presented almost no opportunity for advancement. By 1996, this part-time UPS’s workforce grew to 182,000 part-time employees, working approximately 26-28 hours/week. The Teamster Union, handling the bargaining negotiations for UPS worker-members, researched the rightsRead MoreOverview of United Parcel Service (UPS)1034 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction United Parcel Service (UPS) founded in 1907 is the largest transportation company and the largest air freight carrier in the world. In 1987 due to rapidly changing external environment UPS faced serious challenges to its long-established policies of on-the-job training and promotion from within. With the increase in competition UPS realized that it is lagging in computerization and it thought of seeking technical expertise which it could not get from within. The concerns they had areRead MoreEssay on United Parcel Service - UPS2381 Words   |  10 PagesUPS At 12:01 a.m. August 04,1997, 185,000 members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, one of the largest and historically most powerful unions in the U.S., struck against the United Parcel Service, the company which ships 80 percent of all packages in the country. It was the first nationwide strike in the 90-year history of UPS, and involves more workers than any strike in this decade. Its Our Contract, Well Fight for It said Teamster signs. Its more than just a contractRead More United Parcel Service - UPS Essay1756 Words   |  8 Pages United Parcel Service Executive Summary UPS has announced that after more than 90 years as a private company, it was planning an initial public offering to become a publicly traded company. In response to this, we will first analyze UPS ¡Ã‚ ¦s business strategy and it ¡Ã‚ ¦s sustainability of its current performance. Then we will look at key factors to estimate the UPS ¡Ã‚ ¦s market capitalization value using FedEx ¡Ã‚ ¦s multiples as well as  ¡Ã‚ §best in breed ¡Ã‚ ¨ company premiums. From this, we concluded thatRead MoreUps Company, United Parcel Service Inc.1474 Words   |  6 Pages1. About UPS 1) UPS Worldwide As a leading global logistics company, United Parcel Service Inc. (UPS) provides an integrated series of solutions and services including express carrier and package delivery, simplification of international trade, and advanced technology applications. At 2016, the global UPS delivery volume reached 4.9 billion, or an average of 19.1 million packages and documents per day. UPS dedicated itself to offer high efficient supply chain management service. Founded on Aug. 28

Flint And The Industrial Era - 1226 Words

When you think about the pinnacle city, the turning point in the Industrial Revolution, Flint, Michigan comes to mind. It was a city that perfectly encapsulated the American Dream and set the standard for the working class in America. Flint, Michigan was home to General Motors and at one point they were the driving force of the economy. However, that success was fleeting due to globalization and with many competing companies outsourcing, GM had to make many tough decisions that ultimately led to its downsize. When GM left Flint, the city was devastated and it’s exit contributed to the poverty we see now. The post-industrial era not only left the city in despair, but also left many things in questions, such as the large amounts of lead used during that era that has thus left the city more vulnerable. The current crisis in Flint is able to portray the damages of this ‘industrial legacy’ that has now affected their water. The Flint water crisis could have been avoide d had they properly assessed the situation and went in with the proper tools. Just how they were able to assess and adjust laws to save people during the industrial revolution, Flint needs to implement the same changes. This case is able to illustrate the ways in which race and socioeconomic status intersect with one s insurance to uphold human rights and environmental health. Lead was discovered in 3000 BC, making it one of the earlier metals discovered. Lead became popular due to how easy it is toShow MoreRelatedThe Failure Of The Economic Collapse Of Flint, Michigan865 Words   |  4 Pagescontinue to grow at exponential rates, the collapse of industrial cities such as Flint, Michigan have been a result of the destructive nature of three economic policy initiatives: The North American Free Trade Agreement, the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act, and welfare reform. In this paper I will examine the ways in which federal economic policies have served as a catalyst to the economic stress that led one of America’s historical industrial cities to be faced with a contaminated water supply dueRead MorePaper On Flint Water Crisis1488 Words   |  6 PagesFlint Water Crisis Chemistry is a branch of science that deals various compositions of matter which involves investigating properties that affect us directly, including our environment and our way of life. One of such issues is the public water contamination of Flint, Michigan. The state experienced a water crisis for almost two years continuously, which highly devastated the town since its main water source had been contaminated. There were increasing levels of lead in the city’s drinking waterRead MoreGlobalizations Effect on Labor Unions1670 Words   |  7 Pagesrelocation due to the fluidity of capital, to resist unionization. Michael Moore perhaps best exhibits this phenomenon through his first feature documentary Roger and Me. The film exposes the harsh realties of the deindustrialize era in the late 20th century. Using Flint, Michigan as a microcosm for the broader deindustrialize movement, Moore demonstrates the callousness within the corporate world. Flint’s major and perhaps only industry is General Motors. The city became entirely dependent on theRead MoreMaize in Pre-Columbian America654 Words   |  3 Pagesare in. According to the Department of Agronomy at Iowa State University, corn in England means wheat and in Scotland and Ireland, it means barley or oats (www.agron.iastate.edu).  Ã‚   By drawing on documents and reports from the Pre Columbian American era, I plan to discuss how corn was discovered, the importance of it, and how it was used by Pre Columbian Americans. 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In 1963, John F Kennedy, the president of United States, assassinated and the country left with strong economy that inflation is stabled around 1.24 percentRead MoreThe Fall Of The Western Roman Empire1352 Words   |  6 PagesCharlemagne chose the small town of Aix-la-Chapelle or modern Aachen for the seat of his empirial power. Aix-la-Chapelle was located along the border of modern Belgium and Germany. Aix-la-Chapelle was a small settlement known for the mineral hot springs and flint production. During his reign in Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne spent a great deal of money on improvements and renovations. Although at the time of Charlemagne it boasted a palace and cathedral today only the chapel remains. It was this capital thatRead MoreA Time Of Colonization Of The African Continent By European Power1537 Words   |  7 Pagesindisputable that although the specific reasons that set forth the scramble were wide ranged throughout the continent the action was determined by a state of the expanding international economic and political rivalry caused by the unequal growth of industrial capitalism. The discovery of large deposits of diamonds in 1868 and gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886 led to a vast influx of White settlers from Britain and other European states into South Africa and gave further motivation to the ‘Scramble forRead MoreThe World Has Changed Since The Era Of The Industrial Revolution Essay1572 Words   |  7 Pagesresponsible, as they are the â€Å"ones who created the theory†. While everyone is entitled to their own opinion, people must understand that there is still a problem regardless of whether they choose to see it or not. 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Importance of Quality in Different Manufacturing Processes Free Essays

string(57) " emotional feedback about products to drive improvement\." | Importance of Quality in different manufacturing processes| | | | | | | | TERM PAPER ————————————————- ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This term paper would not be accomplished without the generous contributions of individuals and organizations. I am very much grateful to them for their unlimited help and support. Additionally, we thank our course instructor Fateh Pal Singh who believed that I could terminate this term paper on time. We will write a custom essay sample on Importance of Quality in Different Manufacturing Processes or any similar topic only for you Order Now His moral guidelines, endless effort, and joyful encouragement made me successful in this paper. Furthermore, I want to show our appreciation to the executives, to the librarians of LPU library, and to the lab-assistants of the computer labs, for their unlimited patience during the time of research writing. Moreover, I are also thankful to our classmates, and friends for their helps and supports. I would like to show our endless gratitude by specifying name of FATEH PAL SINGH   for her support in this term paper. †¦Mayank Sibal†¦ ROLL NO. :RF4005B37 Contents: 1. Defination of Quality 2. Activities of Quality 3. Quality Control 4. Quality Improvment 5. Steps of Quality Improved in Manufacturing Process 6. Taguchi’s Approach to quality Engineering 7. Robust Design 8. Adverse Performance Shaping Factors DEFINITION OF QUALITY How is quality defined? It is interesting to observe how its definition varies according to the particular emphasis of quality activities. Juran (1964) defines quality as fitness for use. Crosby (1979) describes quality in terms of conformance to requirements. Deming (1986) says that quality is concerned with the present and future needs of the customer. For Feigenbaum (1983) quality is to do with the combined product characteristics of engineering and manufacture that determine the degree to which the product will meet the expectations of the customer. Taguchi (1986) defines quality as the loss a product causes society once it has been shipped, apart from any losses caused by its intrinsic functions. According to ISO 8402 (International Organization for Standardization,1986), quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that have a bearing on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. Recently, the most widely used definition is that of ISO 9001 (2000). It says that a quality is a characteristic that a product or service must have. For example, products much be reliable, useable, and repairable. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality product must have. Similarly, service should becourteous, efficient, and effective. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality service must have. In short, a quality is a desirable characteristic. However, not all qualities are equal. Some are more important than others. The most important qualities are the ones that customers want. These are the qualities that products and services must have. So providing quality products and services is all about meeting customer requirements. ACTIVITIES OF QUALITY In the manufacturing industry, activities concerned with quality can be divided into six stages: 1. Product planning: planning for the function, price, life cycle, etc. of the product concerned. 2. Product design: designing the product to have the functions decided in product planning. 3. Process design: designing the manufacturing process to have the functions decided in the product design. 4. Production: the process of actually making the product so that it is of the designed quality. 5. Sales: activities to sell the manufactured product. 6. After-sales service: customer service activities such as maintenance and product services. * Note that there are three different characteristics of quality in an overall quality system in the manufacturing industry: 1. Quality of design: quality of product planning, product designand process design. 2. Quality of conformance: quality of production. 3. Quality of service: quality of sales and after-sales services. Nowadays, these three aspects of quality are equally important in the manufacturing company. If any one of them is not up to the mark, then the overall quality system is unbalanced, and the company will face serious problems. Quality control Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects: 1. Elements such as controls, j ob management, defined and well managed processes performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records 2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications 3. Soft elements, such as, personnel integrity, confidence, organizational culture, motivation, team spirit and quality relationships. 4. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way. Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects, and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid, or at least minimize, issues that led to the defects in the first place. ———————————————— Quality improvement There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement: 1. ISO 9004:2008 — guidelines for pe rformance improvement. 2. ISO 15504-4: 2005 — information technology — process assessment — Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process capability determination. 3. QFD — quality function deployment, also known as the house of quality approach. 4. Kaizen  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Japanese for change for the better; the common English term is  continuous improvement. 5. Zero Defect Program — created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based upon  statistical process control  and one of the inputs for the inventors of Six Sigma. 6. Six Sigma  Ã¢â‚¬â€ 6? , Six Sigma combines established methods such as statistical process control,  design of experiments  and  FMEA  in an overall framework. 7. PDCA  Ã¢â‚¬â€ plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. Six Sigma’s  DMAIC  method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control) may be viewed as a particular implementation of this. ) 8. Quality circle  Ã¢â‚¬â€ a group (people oriented) approach to improvement. 9. Taguchi methods  Ã¢â‚¬â€ statistical oriented methods including quality robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications. 10. The Toyota Produ ction System — reworked in the west into  lean manufacturing. 11. Kansei Engineering  Ã¢â‚¬â€ an approach that focuses on capturing customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement. You read "Importance of Quality in Different Manufacturing Processes" in category "Essay examples" 12. TQM —  total quality management  is a management strategy aimed at embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and adapted in USA as the  Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award  and in Europe as the  European Foundation for Quality Management  award (each with their own variations). 13. TRIZ  Ã¢â‚¬â€ meaning â€Å"theory of inventive problem solving† 14. BPR —  business process reengineering, a management approach aiming at ‘clean slate’ improvements (That is, ignoring existing practices). 5. OQM — Object-oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management. Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach, which forms the basis of ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management System standard, duly driven from the ‘Eight principles of Quality managag ement’, process approach being one of them. Thareja[4]  writes about the mechanism and benefits: â€Å"The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in its applicability. While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful†. [5]  The more complex Quality improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted. For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to service enterprises. Each of these approaches and methods has met with success but also with failures. Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating enterprises have won the national quality awards. There have been well publicized failures of BPR, as well as Six Sigma. Enterprises therefore need to consider carefully which quality improvement methods to adopt, and certainly should not adopt all those listed here. It is important not to underestimate the people factors, such as culture, in selecting a quality improvement approach. Any improvement (change) takes time to implement, gain acceptance and stabilize as accepted practice. Improvement must allow pauses between implementing new changes so that the change is stabilized and assessed as a real improvement, before the next improvement is made (hence continual improvement, not continuous improvement). Seven step quality manufacturing process improvement Improving quality manufacturing processes can result in decreased waste, better quality products, and an overall improvement in customer satisfaction. The following are tips for seven step quality manufacturing process improvement. Before you start, however, you will want to develop a committee that is in charge of overseeing the steps and making sure they come to fruition. It’s best to involve the whole company if possible, but in the beginning a committee can help to ensure the steps are completed and taken from beginning to end. Step one: The first step is to define the actual process. This is important as it provides a foundation for improving your processes. During this first step, you should name the process and its purpose, as well as its starting and ending points, inputs and outputs, and your overall requirements. It would also be a good idea to identify the customers and suppliers who will be affected by this process Step two: The next step involves identifying areas of improvement that are needed. This process is usually done by selecting a random sampling of a particular product that is being manufactured. This product is then tested for a variety of things that will have an impact on the end user and consumer. This can include durability, materials, toxicity, and so forth. There are a number of ways to go about this in manufacturing. Some of the more common areas of improvement in manufacturing include disintegration of parts, loose fasteners, and so forth and should be a main focus. Step three: Identify potential solutions for the problems. Once the problems have been identified, it is important to then find solutions for them. Brainstorm ith the committee, or consult specialists or higher ups in the manufacturing plants that can help you to arrive at the best possible solution. Additionally, you will want to get feedback from those who work on or with the process on a daily basis. Step four: After you have identified problem areas and then brainstormed for improvements, step four involves developing a more detailed solution for each problem area. In detailing how to solve the proble m, include a budget, determine what personnel are necessary for making the improvements, conduct a projected cost analysis, and a time frame for completing the overall improvements. You will also need to determine how the rest of the manufacturing plant will be affected by this and whether it will slow production at any level. Step five: Put your plan into action. After a detailed plan has been made, it is time to implement it to improve your processes. Now is the time to involve everyone, from the highest levels of management in the manufacturing company down to the workers who utilize the process. Step six: Evaluate. Once you have put your plan into action and have achieved the results from it, you will need to evaluate your improvement process as a whole. Ask yourselves if the process had its desired effect. Was the process successful? Did it fix the problem? Did it eliminate waste? Did you implement the improvements on time and within budget? All of these factors should be taken into consideration. Step seven: Continue to repeat steps two and six as often as necessary to achieve improvement within the manufacturing plant. The overall goal is to decrease the need for a committee, and instead have all members of the plant continually working to improve. TAGUCHI’S APPROACH TO QUALITY ENGINEERING A product’s cost can be divided into two main parts: before sale and after sale to the customer. The costs incurred before sale are the manufacturing costs, and the costs incurred after sale are those due to quality loss. A defective product which is scrapped or reworked prior to shipment is viewed by Taguchi as a manufacturing cost to the company, but not a quality loss. Qualityengineering is an interdisciplinary science which is concerned with not only producing satisfactory products for customers but also reducing the total loss (manufacturing cost plus quality loss). Hence, quality engineering involved engineering design, process operations, after-sales services, economics and statistics. Taguchi’s impact on the concept of quality control in the manufacturing industry has been far-reaching. His quality engineering system has been used successfully by many companies in Japan, the USA and elsewhere. Recently it is reported that several companies in Korea have used his methods with great success. He emphasizes the importance of designing quality control into the manufacturing processes. Also, he stresses that quality variation is the main enemy of quality engineering and that every effort should be made to reduce the variation in quality characteristics. Taguchi extensively uses experimental design primarily as a tool to design products more robust (which means less sensitive) to noise factors. Robust design is an engineering methodology for optimizing the product and process conditions which are minimally sensitive to the various causes of variation, and which produce high-quality products with low development and manufacturing costs. Taguchi’s parameter design is an important tool for robust design. His tolerance design can be also classified as a robust design. In a narrow sense robust design is identical to parameter design, but in a wider sense parameter design is a subset of robust design. Two major tools used in robust design are: * signal-to-noise ratio, which measures quality with emphasis on variation. * orthogonal arrays, which accommodate many design factors (parameters) simultaneously. References: 1. Internet: www. mitlecture. com www. wikipidia. com www. google. com/books 2. Books: 1. Kalpeak Jain 2. â€Å"Fundamental of Morden Manufacturing† By, Mp Grover How to cite Importance of Quality in Different Manufacturing Processes, Essay examples

Cross Culture Comparison of Leadership Traits free essay sample

The article is based on report on research conducted, which shows the study of comparing perceptions of the importance of 18 traits for effective low-level leaders and high-level leaders. Participants were 84 full-time white-collar employees from Australia and 244 full-time white-collar employees from China. Multivariate analysis of variance revealed cultural differences in terms of which traits are regarded as important for effective leadership. China’s recent entry nto World Trade Organization (WTO) has already resulted in an increase in trade agreements between China and many developed nations (e. g. Australia, US). The increase in trade between China and developed nations will inevitably lead to increased interactions between personnel from China and the developed nations. These personnel, especially expatriate managers, need to be aware of cultural differences and similarities in leadership prototypes in offer to perform effectively. Leadership is a major component of the social fabric of many organization (Lord et al. 1986), and prototypical perceptions of effective leadership represent an important topic of investigation for research (Hackman and Lawler, 1971; Hunt, 1991; Petterson, 1985). Perceptions of leadership are what followers act on and, therefore such perceptions can impact the outcomes of the leadership process (Bennett, 1977; Gerstner and Day, 1994). Leader acceptance and effectiveness may depend on leader attributes and behaviors being congruent with the endorsed implicit leadership theories of followers (Cronshaw and Lord, 1987; House et al. , 1999). Furthermore, certain characteristics of a culture may render specific leadership characteristics and styles acceptable and effective (House et al. , 2004). For example, a leader who adopts an autocratic style may be more accepted and effective in a high power distance culture (e. g. China) than in a low power distance culture (e. g. Australia) Although studies have examined cultural differences in leadership traits, there are important issues that remain to be addressed, especially with regard to comparisons between China and Australia. The largest study thus ar, project GLOBE, involved data from approximately 17,000 managers from 951 organizations in 62 countries around the world. According to the research, cognitive prototypes appear to be a central component of implicit leadership theories (Lord et al. , 1982) and provide an abstract standard, or expectation, against which actual leaders can be compared. Cognitive prototypes thus influence perceptions of leadership as well as reactions to leadership, because interpretations of and reactions to leadership depend on the type of prototype that is evoked (Lord et al. , 1984). According to Lord and Maher’s (1991) ‘recognition model’, an important determinant of being perceived as an effective leader is the congruence between the follower’s pre-existing notions of the ideal characteristics of an effective leader and his or her perceptions of the leader’s actual characteristics. The better the match between ideal and actual characteristics, the more likely it is that the leader will receive credit for favorable work outcomes and therefore attain the social power vital for effective leadership (Cronshaw and Lord, 1987; Hollander and Julian, 1969; Shaw, 1990). Although there is evidence that some leadership traits and practices are endorsed universally, there is also evidence that the enactment of these traits varies across cultures (Den Hartog et al. , 1999; House et al. , 2004). For instance, although leaders in Australia and New Zealand are expected to be egalitarian, Australian leaders are expected to be more socially oriented and less task-oriented than their New Zealand counterparts. Furthermore, people pursue goals because goal attainment implies that they possess those qualities that are socially desirable. Consequently, leaders might favor certain leadership practices because practices might be perceived as indicator of certain socially desirable characteristics. For instance, in cultures that value decisiveness and hierarchy, leaders might prefer to be autocratic, and subordinates might prefer to be loyal and obedient. Conversely, in cultures that value egalitarianism, leaders might prefer to be consultative, and subordinates might prefer to be challenging and outspoken. There is evidence of cross cultural differences and similarities in the leadership prototypically of various traits, indicating that some traits may be endorsed universally as prototypical of effective leaders, whereas the endorsement of other traits may be culturally contingent: Gerstner and Day (1994) found the leadership prototypically of traits to be related strongly to three of Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions. Cross cultural similarities in leadership prototypes were also found by Gerstner and Day (1994). Specifically, the trait ‘goal-oriented’ was the second most important prototypical trait for effective business leaders. The findings of Project GLOBE (House et al. , 2004) suggest that some traits (e. g. visionary, intelligent, trustworthy, and decisive) are endorsed universally as positive attributes for a leader to possess, whereas the endorsement of other traits is more culturally contingent (e. g. compassionate, domineering, orderly, and risk taker). Helgstrand and Stuhlmacher (1999) found that American and Danish students saw feminine leaders as most collegial, and feminine-individualistic leaders as most effective. Brodbeck et al. (2000) found that leadership prototypes differed systematically with the general cultural values held by managers and employees in 10 different regions of Europe. Some traits (e. g. integrity, performance-oriented, team integrator, and visionary), however, were seen as facilitating outstanding leadership in all of the regions (e. g. integrity and visionary), except for France. China’s cultural tradition is founded on Confucian values, which still provide the basis for the norms of Chinese interpersonal behavior. According to Hofstede and Bond (1988), one of the key principles of Confucianism is that social stability is dependent on unequal relationships. Confucianism emphasizes hierarchy and contends that each individual should be conscious of his or her position in the social system. Although Chinese culture may be changing, with wealth increasingly becoming the paramount value for Chinese people, some key elements of the culture (e. g. Respect for authority, collectivism) remain unchanged. In short, there may be sound reasons to expect the Chinese to endorse a different set of leadership traits to that of other cultures. China would score low on individualism because of the high value the Chinese place on the family/referent group and the socialistic influence of Communism. Research has supported the claim in that collectivistic values have been shown to be dominant in China (e. g. Dorfman and Howell, 1988; Ralston et al. , 1996). It can also be argued that China would score high on power distance because of the Confucian emphasis on hierarchy. Along these lines, beliefs of Chinese managers have been found to be more autocratic countries, especially regarding sharing information with subordinates and participative decision-making (Redding and Casey, 1986). In contrast to the Chinese, Australians tend to prefer managerial practices that are egalitarian and consultative (Clark and McCabe, 1970; Robbins et al. , 1994), which is consistent with their preference for low power distance. Australian leadership is distinct because of its emphasis on egalitarianism and individualism, and Australian leaders are expected to maintain the perception of equality with their followers. Australians also tend to play down inequalities and are not fearful or in awe of their bosses, or other authority figures. For example, Australian student have been shown to prefer an assertive style (e. g. They address the lecturer by first name, maintain direct eye contact, and speak loudly) when complaining to a lecturer about their grades. Individualism-collectivism has been shown to impact managerial perceptions attitudes and behaviors. Hong Kong Chinese manages who migrated to Australia reported that they had to adapt to a smaller power distance between supervisors and subordinates, as well as to a more direct and participatory communication style. Australian middle managers perceived participative leadership to be more important for outstanding leadership than did middle managers from China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. There are additional reasons to expect differences between Australians and Chinese in terms of the importance placed on different leadership traits. First, compared to Chinese, Australians are less concerned with uncertainty avoidance and thus may place less emphasis on formalization and standardization. Accordingly, they may expect more innovative or less orderly behaviors from their leaders. Second, in individualistic/low power distance countries (e. g. Australia), managers typically create job-based work designs founded on individual initiative and responsibility. In contrast, in collectivistic/high power distance countries (e. . China) managers prefer team-based work organizations with strong control by supervisors, in which team-level quality measures and tools are used to manage quality. Third, there is evidence that Chinese managers do not view communication as especially important for effective leadership. It is apparent that the roles and responsibilities of leaders vary with hierarchical level. Specifically, high-level leadership is more strategic in nature (e. g. developing and promoting a vision, thinking about organizational structure and policies, allocating resources, public relations). Conversely, low-level leadership is constrained by the decisions made by high-level leadership and is primarily concerned with issues that are more immediate, less complex, and which necessitate closer involvement with followers, such as staffing and scheduling work, as well as structuring and monitoring the work activities of followers. Put another way, high-level leadership is concerned with ends more than means, whereas low-level leadership is concerned with means more than ends. Not surprisingly then, the behavior of high-level leaders and low-level leaders has been shown to differ both qualitatively, and quantitatively. Given that leaders at different hierarchical levels perform different functions, followers are likely to expect different things from them. There is evidence that traits associated with transformational leadership (e. g. Courageous, diplomatic, innovative, inspirational, and visionary) are seen as more important for high-level leaders than for low-level leaders, while traits associated with daily operations and interacting with followers (e. g. Concern for subordinates’ interests, orderly, participative, and team builder) are seen as more important for low-level leaders than for high-level leaders. In conclude, the Australians rated traits that attenuate leader–follower power differences (e. g. friendly and respectful) higher than did the Chinese. Consistent with previous research, traits that were regarded as more important for high-level leaders (e. g. inspirational and visionary) correspond with aspects of charismatic/visionary leadership. The findings indicate that the perceived importance of specific leadership traits is determined partly by culturally endorsed interpersonal norms and partly by the requirements of the leadership role.